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Prepare all questions. You will have to answer five questions without any choices during the examination on January 16, 2007.

1. Concerning Pythagoras, Bertrand Russell writes, “I do not know of any other man who has been as influential as was in the sphere of thought. Explain precisely what was his influence in the sphere of thought.
2. “The metaphysics of Heraclitus is dominated by a conception of cosmic justice,” writes Russell. How is the idea of cosmic justice expressed in this ancient philosopher? How did he influence later philosophers such as the Stoics? (the lecture notes should be very helpful in answering this question.)
3. Plato talks about the great Parmenides. How did Parmenides influence Plato? Give a brief summary of Parmenides’ understanding of the nature of time and change. Finally, explain why Bertrand Russell is so fascinated with Parmenides.
4. Although Socrates is sometimes linked with the Sophists, his thinking is fundamentally different from the Sophists. How is Socrates’ thinking and values different from the Sophists? Limit your discussion of Socrates to the main themes of his trial in Plato’s Apology.
5. Why is Socrates considered the ideal philosopher?
6. What does Plato mean by justice and injustice? What is attractive or repulsive about his conception of justice and injustice?
7. Aristotle’s Ethics is considered on the great works in moral philosophy. However, Russell finds much to criticize in it. What are Russell’s criticisms of Aristotle’s Ethics?
8. Aristotle devotes much thought to the idea of the good life? What are the essential features of the good life, according to Aristotle? He also reflects on the best life. How is the best life different from the good life?
9. How did Macedonian political rule transform philosophy in the Hellenistic Age? Include in your response two schools of Hellenistic philosophy. (Do NOT discuss the Epicureans or the Stoics.)
10. Popular views of Epicureanism define it as “Eat, drink, and be merry for tomorrow we die.” To what extent is this an accurate view of the life and thought of Epicurus? What is peculiar or distinctive about his view of pleasure?
11. How does Stoic philosophy understand the concept of nature? What was the significance of the Stoic idea of nature for religion and morality?
12. Why does Russell think that nothing is more devastatingly futile than the Stoic view of virtue? You must discuss the essential features of Stoic virtue and refer to three Stoic thinkers.
13. Explain how and why a small and insignificant sect within Palestinian Judaism became the official religion of the Roman Empire. What part did Saint Paul play in this? Include in your discussion the role of economic, political and theological factors in the expansion of Christianity.
14. Russell says that as a philosopher, Augustine deserves a high place. Why does Russell consider a Christian bishop an important philosopher? Discuss Augustine’s view of the two cities and explain how the two cities are connected with his philosophy of history.
15. With specific reference to Books 7 and 8, explain how the books of the Platonists help Augustine in his journey from Manichaeism to Christianity. Although he remained indebted to Platonism throughout his life, what did Christianity offer him that Platonism failed to provide?
16. Anselm and Aquinas made it their principal concern to unite religious faith and reason. How is this reflected in their religious and philosophical thinking? Pay close attention to their arguments for God’s existence. Why did Aquinas reject Anselm’s argument?
17. Why is Medieval Philosophy referred to as Scholasticism? Discuss the defining features of medieval scholasticism, and the contribution of Peter Abelard to this philosophy.
18. Aquinas created an impressive synthesis between religion and science, between philosophy and theology. What are the key features of this synthesis? (B) What is his contribution to moral theory?
19. Not until the eleventh century did Europe emerge from the dark ages. What discuss this claim with reference to some of the major intellectual and cultural developments from the eleventh century to the end of the Middle Ages.
20. In what ways did the Renaissance differ from the High Middle Ages of the 13th century? Explain with reference to Renaissance political thought and Florentine philosophers of the 15th century.